Stranger than fiction? : a few methodological notes on linguistic research in film discourse

Title: Stranger than fiction? : a few methodological notes on linguistic research in film discourse
Author: Dynel, Marta
Source document: Brno studies in English. 2011, vol. 37, iss. 1, pp. [41]-61
Extent
[41]-61
  • ISSN
    0524-6881 (print)
    1805-0867 (online)
Type: Article
Language
License: Not specified license
 

Notice: These citations are automatically created and might not follow citation rules properly.

Abstract(s)
This theoretical essay addresses a number of methodological problems pertinent to linguistic research on film discourse. First of all, attention is paid to the interdependence between contemporary film discourse and everyday language, with a view to dispersing doubts about the former's legitimacy in language studies. Also, the discussion captures the interface between a character's identity portrayal and the target audience's socio-cultural background and expectations. Another objective is to elaborate a model of film discourse's twofold layering, viz. the fictional layer and the film crew's layer; and two communicative levels, namely the characters' level and the viewer's level, on which meanings are communicated and inferred by the viewer, who is conceptualised as the recipient. Additionally, the notion of recipient design will be endorsed in order to demonstrate that meanings are purposefully communicated to, and thus gleaned by, the viewer. Several postulates are propounded concerning the viewer's understanding and appreciation of film discourse.
References
[1] Ang, Ien (1985) Watching Dallas: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination. London: Methuen,

[2] Antaki, Charles and Sue Widdicombe (1998) Identitites in Talk. London: Sage.

[3] Aumont, Jacquesm Alain Bergala, Michel Marie and Marc Vernet (1992) Aesthetics of Film, translated by Richard Neupert. Austin: University of Texas Press.

[4] Bell, Allan (1984) 'Language style as audience design'. Language and Society 13, 145–204. | DOI 10.1017/S004740450001037X

[5] Bell, Allan (1991) The Language of News Media. Oxford: Blackwell.

[6] Bennison, Neil (1993) 'Discourse analysis, pragmatics, and the dramatic character: Tom Stoppard's Professional Foul'. Language and Literature 2, 79–99. | DOI 10.1177/096394709300200201

[7] Berger, Arthur (1992) Popular Culture Genres: Theories and Texts. London: Sage,

[8] Berliner, Todd (1999) 'Hollywood movie dialogue and the 'real realism' of John Cassavetes'. Film Quarterly 52, 2–16. | DOI 10.2307/1213821

[9] Bignell, Jonathan (2002) Media Semiotics: An Introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

[10] Bordwell, David and Kristin Thompson (1979) Film Art. Madison: McGraw-Hill.

[11] Boxer, Diana (2002) Applying Sociolinguistics: Domains of Face-to-Face Interaction. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

[12] Bubel, Claudia (2006) The linguistic construction of character relations in TV drama: doing friendship in Sex and the City. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Saarbrucken: Universitat des Saarlandes.

[13] Bubel, Claudia (2008) 'Film audiences as overhearers'. Journal of Pragmatics 40, 55–71. | DOI 10.1016/j.pragma.2007.10.001

[14] Bubel, Claudia and Alice Spitz (2006) 'One of the last vestiges of gender bias: The characterization of women through the telling of dirty jokes in Ally McBeal'. Humor 19, 71–104.

[15] Bucholtz, Mary and Kira Hall (2005) 'Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic approach'. Discourse Studies 7, 584–614.

[16] Burger, Harald (1984) Sprache der Massenmedien. Berlin: de Gruyter.

[17] Burger, Harald (1991) Das Gesprach in den Massenmedien. Berlin: de Gruyter.

[18] Carter Ronald and Paul Simpson (1979) Language, Discourse, and Literature. London: Routledge.

[19] Chothia, Jean (1978) Forging a Language: A Study of Plays of Eugene O'Neill. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[20] Chovanec, Jan (2011) 'Humour in quasi-conversations: Constructing fun in online sports journalism'. In: Dynel, Marta (ed.) The Pragmatics of Humour across Discourse Domains, 243–264.

[21] Clark, Herbert (1996) Using Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[22] Clark, Herbert and Thomas Carlson (1982) 'Hearers and speech acts'. Language 58, 332–372. | DOI 10.1353/lan.1982.0042

[23] Clark, Herbert and Catherine R. Marshall (1981) 'Definite reference and mutual knowledge'. In: Joshi, A.K., B. Webber, and I. Sag (eds.) Elements of Discourse Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 10–63.

[24] Clark, Herbert and Edward Schaefer (1987) 'Concealing one's meaning from overhearers'. Journal of Memory and Language 26, 209–225. | DOI 10.1016/0749-596X(87)90124-0

[25] Clark, Herbert and Edward Schaefer (1992) 'Dealing with overhearers'. In: Clark, Herbert (ed.) Arenas of Language Use. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 248–273.

[26] Clark, Herbert and Mija Van Der Wege (2001) 'Imagination in discourse' In: Schiffrin, Deborah, Deborah Tannen and Heidi E. Hamilton (eds.) The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell, 772–786.

[27] Cooper, Marilyn (1981) 'Impoliteness, convention and the taming of the shrew'. Poetics 10, 1–14. | DOI 10.1016/0304-422X(81)90007-3

[28] Culler, Jonathan (1975) Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Lingusitics and the Study of Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

[29] Culpeper, Jonathan (2001) Language and Characterisation: People in Plays and Other Texts. London: Longman.

[30] Culpeper, Jonathan (2002) 'A cognitive stylistic approach to characterisation'. In: Semino, Elena and Jonathan Culpeper (eds.) Cognitive Stylistics: Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 251–277.

[31] Dow, Bonnie (1996) Prime-Time Feminism. Television, Media Culture and the Women's Movement. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

[32] Downes, William (1988) 'King Lear's question to his daughters'. In: Peer, Willie van (ed.) The Taming of the Text: Explorations in Language Literature and Culture. London: Routledge, 225–257.

[33] Duncan, Starkey (1974) 'On the structure of speaker–auditor interaction during speaking turns'. Language in Society 3, 161–180. | DOI 10.1017/S0047404500004322

[34] Duranti, Alessandro (1986) 'The audience as co-author: An introduction'. Text 6, 239–247.

[35] Dynel, Marta (2009) Humorous Garden-Paths: A Pragmatic-Cognitive Study. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

[36] Dynel, Marta (2010a) 'Friend or foe? Chandler's humour from the metarecipient's perspective'. In: Witczak-Plisiecka, Iwona (ed.) Pragmatic Perspectives on Language and Linguistics Vol. II: Pragmatics of Semantically Restricted Domains. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 175–205.

[37] Dynel, Marta (2010b) 'Not hearing things – Hearer/listener categories in polylogues'. mediAzioni 9. http://mediazioni.sitlec.unibo.it.

[38] Dynel, Marta (2011a) 'A potluck approach to Polish comedies: Towards determining the Polish taste culture'. In: Brzozowska, Dorota and Władysław Chlopicki (eds.) Polish Humor. Kraków: Tertium.

[39] Dynel, Marta (2011b) 'Entertaining and enraging: The functions of verbal aggression in political debates'. In: Tsakona, Villy and Diana Popa (eds.) Confronting Power with Laughter.

[40] Dynel, Marta (2011c) 'Two communicative levels and twofold illocutionary force in televised political debates'. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics 47(2), 283–307.

[41] Dynel, Marta (2011d) 'Women who swear and men who fret: The subversive construction of genders in films: A case study of "Lejdis" and "Testosteron"'. In: Gonerko-Frej et al. (eds.) Us and Them – Them and Us: Constructions of the Other in Cultural Stereotypes – Perceptions, Challenges, Meanings. Shaker Verlag.

[42] Dynel, Marta (2011e) ''You talking to me?' The viewer as a ratified hearer.' Journal of Pragmatics 43, 1628–1644. | DOI 10.1016/j.pragma.2010.11.016

[43] Emmison, Michael (1993) 'On the analyzability of conversational fabrication: A conceptual inquiry and single case example'. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 16, 83–108. | DOI 10.1075/aral.16.1.06emm

[44] Emmison, Michael and Laurence Goldman (1996) 'What's that you said sooty? Puppets, parlance and pretence'. Language and Communication 16, 17–35. | DOI 10.1016/0271-5309(95)00011-9

[45] Emmott, Catherine (1997) Narrative Comprehension: A Discourse Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[46] Fetzer, Anita (2006) '"Minister, we will see how the public judges you". Media references in political interviews'. Journal of Pragmatics 38, 180–195. | DOI 10.1016/j.pragma.2005.06.017

[47] Fiske, John (1986) 'Television: Polysemy and popularity'. Critical Studies in Mass Communication 3, 391–408. | DOI 10.1080/15295038609366672

[48] Fiske, John and John Hartley (1978) Reading Television. London: Methuen.

[49] Fokkema, Aleid (1991) Postmodern Characters: A Study of Characterization in British and American Postmodern Fiction. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

[50] Frye, Northrop (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

[51] Garfinkel, Harold (1967) Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

[52] Garvey, James (1978) 'Characterization in narrative'. Poetics 7, 63–78. | DOI 10.1016/0304-422X(78)90005-0

[53] Gauntlett, David (2002) Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction. London: Routledge.

[54] Georgakopoulou, Alexandra (2000) 'On the sociolinguistics of popular cinema: funny characters, funny voices'. Journal of modern Greek Studies 19, 119–133. | DOI 10.1353/mgs.2000.0006

[55] Giannetti, Louis (2007) Understanding Movies, 11th ed. Reihe: Allyn & Bacon.

[56] Goffman, Erving (1974) Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New York: Harper and Row.

[57] Goffman, Erving (1981) Forms of Talk. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

[58] Greimas, Algirdas (1983) Structural Semantics, translated by Daniele McDowell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press [(1966) Semantique Structurale. Paris: Larousse]

[59] Hall, Stuart (1980) 'Encoding/Decoding' In: Hall, Stuart, Dorothy Hobson, Andrew Lowe and Paul Willis (eds.) Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies. London: Hutchinson, 128–39.

[60] Hall, Kira and Beth Daniels (1992) '"It's rather like embracing a textbook": The linguistic representation of the female psychoanalyst in American film'. In: Hall, Kira, Mary Bucholtz and Birch Moonwomon (eds.) Locating Power: Proceedings of the second Berkeley Women and Language Conference. Berkeley: Berkeley Women and Language Group, 223–239.

[61] Harvey, William (1965) Character and the Novel. London: Chatto and Windus.

[62] Hedges, Inez (1991) Breaking the Frame: Film Language and the Experience of Limits. Indiana University Press.

[63] Hedley Mark. (2002) 'The geometry of gendered conflict in popular film: 1986–2000'. Sex Roles 47, 201–217. | DOI 10.1023/A:1021314525452

[64] Herman, Vimala (1995) Dramatic Discourse: Dialogue as Interaction in Plays. London: Routledge.

[65] Hobson, Dorothy (1982) Crossroads: The Drama of a Soap Opera. London: Methuen.

[66] Hopper, Robert and Curtis Le Baron (1999) 'How gender creeps into talk'. Research on Language and Social Interaction 31, 59–74. | DOI 10.1207/s15327973rlsi3101_4

[67] Hurst, Daniel (1987) 'Speech acts in Ivy Compton-Burnett's A Family and a Fortune'. Language and Style 20, 342–358.

[68] Hutchby, Ian. (2006). Media Talk: Conversation Analysis and the Study of Broadcasting. Glasgow: Open University Press.

[69] Jucker, Andreas, H. (2003) 'Mass media communication at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Dimensions of change'. Journal of Historical Pragmatics 4, 129–148. | DOI 10.1075/jhp.4.1.07juc

[70] Karttunen, Lauri and Stanley Peters (1979) 'Conventional implicature'. In: Oh, Choon-Kyu and David A. Dinneen (eds.) Syntax and Semantics: Presupposition. New York: Academic Press, 1–56.

[71] Katz, Steve (1991) Film Directing Shot by Shot: Visualizing from Concept to Screen. Michael Wiese Productions.

[72] Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Catherine (1997) 'A multilevel approach in the study if talk-in-interaction'. Pragmatics 7, 1–20. | DOI 10.1075/prag.7.1.01ker

[73] Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Catherine (ed.) (2004) 'Polylogue'. Journal of Pragmatics 36 (Special Issue), 1–145.

[74] Kozloff, Sarah (2000) Overhearing Film Dialogue. Berkeley: University of California Press.

[75] Lakoff, Robin (1990) Talking Power: The Politics of Language. New York: Basic Books.

[76] Lorenzo-Dus, Nuria (2009) Television Discourse. Analysing Language in the Media. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

[77] Lowe, Valerie (1998) '"Unhappy" confessions in The Crucible: A pragmatic explanation'. In: Culpeper, Jonathan, Mick Short and Peter Verdonk (eds.) Exploring the Language of Drama: From Text to Context. London: Routledge, 128–141.

[78] Margolin, Uri (1983) 'Characterisation in narrative: Some theoretical prolegomena'. Neophilologus 67, 1–14. | DOI 10.1007/BF01956983

[79] Margolin, Uri (1996) 'Characters and their versions'. In: Mihailescu, Calin Andrei and Walid Hamarneh (eds.) Fiction Updated: Theories of Fictionality, Narratology, and Poetics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 113–32.

[80] Martin, James and Peter White (2005) The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English. London: Palgrave.

[81] McHoul, Alec (1987) 'An initial investigation of the usability of fictional conversation for doing conversational analysis'. Semiotica 67, 83–104.

[82] Mead, Gerald (1990) 'The representation of fictional character'. Style 24, 440–452.

[83] Monaco, James (1981) How to Read a Film: The World of Movies, Media, Multimedia: Language, History, Theory. Oxford University Press.

[84] Morley, David (1980) The Nationwide Audience: Structure and Decoding. London: British Film Institute.

[85] Morley, David (1994) 'Active audience theory: Pendulums and pitfalls'. In: Levy, Mark R. and Michael Gurevitch (eds.) Defining Media Studies: Reflections on the Future of the Field. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 255–261.

[86] Morris, Merrill and Christine Ogan (1996) 'The Internet as a mass medium'. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 1.4 (http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol1/issue4/morris.html).

[87] Mulvey, Laura (1975) 'Visual pleasure and narrative cinema'. Screen 16/3, 6–18. Reprinted in: Kaplan, A.E. (ed.) (2000) Feminism and Film. New York: Oxford University Press, 34–47.

[88] Neale, Stephen (1977) 'Propaganda'. Screen 18, 9–40. | DOI 10.1093/screen/18.3.9

[89] Newcomb, Horace and Paul Hirsch (1987) 'Television as a cultural forum'. In: Newcomb, Horace (ed.) Television: The critical view, 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 453–470.

[90] O'Keeffe, Anne (2006) Investigating Media Discourse. London: Routledge.

[91] Palmer, Patricia (1986) The Lively Audience: A Study of Children around the TV Set. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

[92] Palmer, Alan (2002) 'The construction of fictional minds'. Narrative 10.1, 28–46. | DOI 10.1353/nar.2002.0004

[93] Palmer, Alan (2004) Fictional Minds. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

[94] Payrató, Luis (2009) 'Non-verbal communication'. In: Verschueren, Jeff and Jan-Ola Östman (eds.) Key Notions for Pragmatics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 163–194.

[95] Phelan, James (1979) Reading People, Reading Plots: Character, Progression, and the Interpretation of Narrative. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[96] Pratt, Mary (1977) Towards a Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

[97] Propp, Vladimir (1968) Morphology of the Folktale, 2nd ed, translated by L. Scott. Austin: University of Texas Press.

[98] Quaglio, Paulo (2008) 'Television dialogue and natural conversation: Linguistic similarities and functional differences.' In: Ädel, Annelie and Randi Reppen (eds.) Corpora and Discourse: The Challenges of Different Settings. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 189–210.

[99] Quaglio, Paulo (2009) Television Dialogue: The Sitcom Friends vs. Natural Conversation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

[100] Richardson, Kay (2010) Television Dramatic Dialogue. A Sociolinguistic Study. New York: Oxford.

[101] Rose, Kenneth (2001) 'Compliments and compliment responses in film: Implications for pragmatics research and language teaching'. International Review of Applied Linguistics 39, 309–326.

[102] Sacks, Harvey, Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson (1974) 'A simplest systematics for the organisation of turn-taking for conversation'. Language 50, 696–735. | DOI 10.1353/lan.1974.0010

[103] Scannell, Paddy (1991) 'Introduction: The relevance of talk'. In: Scannell, Paddy (ed.) Broadcast Talk. Sage, London, 1–13.

[104] Schegloff, Emanuel (1988) 'Goffman and the analysis of conversation'. In: Drew, Paul and Anthony Wotton (eds.) Erving Goffman: Exploring the Interaction Order, Oxford: Polity Press, 89–135.

[105] Scholes, Robert and Robert Kellogg (1966) 'Character in narrative'. In: Scholes, Robert and Robert Kellogg (eds.) The Nature of Narrative. London: Oxford University Press, 160–206.

[106] Schwarz, Daniel (1989) 'Character and characterization: An inquiry'. The Journal of Narrative Technique 19(1), 85–105.

[107] Semino, Elena (2002) 'A Cognitive stylistic approach to mind style in narrative fiction'. In: Semino, Elena and Jonathan Culpeper (eds.) Cognitive Stylistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 95–122.

[108] Short, Mick (1981) 'Discourse analysis and the analysis of drama'. Applied Linguistics 2, 180–202. Reprinted in: Carter, Ronald and Paul Simpson (eds.) (1989) Language, Discourse, and Literature. Unwin Hyman Ltd, 137–168.

[109] Short, Mick (1994) 'Discourse analysis and drama'. In: Asher, R.E. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon, 949–952.

[110] Short, Mick (2007) 'How to make a drama out of a speech act: The speech act of apology in the film A Fish Called Wanda'. In: Hoover, David L. and Sharon Lattig (eds.) Stylistics: Retrospect and Prospect. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 169–189.

[111] Simpson, Paul (1998) 'Odd talk: Studying discourses of incongruity'. In: Culpeper, Jonathan, Mick Short and Peter Verdonk (eds.) Exploring the Language of Drama: From Text to Context. London: Routledge, 34–53.

[112] Stalnaker, Robert (1978) 'Assertion'. In: Cole, Peter (ed.) Syntax and Semantics: Pragmatics, NY: Academic Press, 315–332.

[113] Stam, Robert (2000) Film Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.

[114] Tannen, Deborah (1984) Conversational Style. Analyzing Talk among Friends. Norwood, NJ: Newbury House.

[115] Tannen, Deborah and Robin Lakoff (1994) 'Conversational strategy and metastrategy in a pragmatic theory: The example of scenes from a marriage'. In: Tannen, Deborah (ed.) Gender and Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 137–173.

[116] Toolan, Michael (1988) Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. London: Routledge.

[117] Turner John and Penelope Oakes (1989) 'Self-categorization theory and social influence'. In: Paulus, Paul (ed.) The Psychology of Group Influence. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum, 233–275.

[118] van Peer, Willie (1989) The Taming of the Text: Explorations in Language, Literature and Culture. London: Routledge.

[119] Walcutt, Charles Child (1966) Man's Changing Mask: Modes and Methods of Characterization in Fiction. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

[120] Walton, Kendall (1990) Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts. Harvard: Harvard University Press.

[121] Weatherall, Ann (1996) 'Language about women and men: An example from popular culture'. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 15, 59–75. | DOI 10.1177/0261927X960151004