Spiritual and social strategies of the Matsés ethnic group : application of the poisonous secretion Kambo (Acaté), diet, the snuff mixture në-në, and gender flexibility as natural adaptations

The negative impacts of environmental changes, the introduction of new diseases, and disputes over land and resources require natural adaptations that enable optimal survival and reproductive success in an ever-changing environment. This article focuses on the social and spiritual strategies developed by the indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon, the Matsés, to adapt to the challenging conditions of the rainforest. The methodology is based on ethnographic research conducted in the Matsés Reservation in 2018, 2023, and 2024. Participant observation and semi-structured interviews were conducted among the residents of the town of Angamos and the community of San Roque. Key strategies identified with spiritual elements include the application of Kambo (in the Matsés language "Acaté"), the poisonous secretion from the frog species Phyllomedusa bicolor; the practice of a diet involving the snuffing of the psychotropic mixture në-në; and gender flexibility that supports adaptation. These strategies have helped increase the socio-ecological resilience of the Matsés people at various levels and, along with an enhanced spiritual relationship with nature, have increased their adaptability and the psychological support available to them.